References

April 19, 2026 ยท View on GitHub

Governing references for the methods implemented in Surge. Where a Surge implementation follows a specific formulation, the reference is cited here. For method classification (reference-equation, approximation, heuristic), see Method Fidelity.

AC Power Flow

  • [Tinney1967] W. F. Tinney and C. E. Hart, "Power Flow Solution by Newton's Method," IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, vol. PAS-86, no. 11, pp. 1449-1460, Nov. 1967. The foundational Newton-Raphson formulation for power flow in polar coordinates. Surge's solve_ac_pf implements this formulation with sparse Jacobian assembly and KLU factorization.

  • [Stott1974] B. Stott, "Review of Load-Flow Calculation Methods," Proceedings of the IEEE, vol. 62, no. 7, pp. 916-929, July 1974. Comprehensive review of power flow methods including NR and fast-decoupled.

  • [Stott1974b] B. Stott and O. Alsac, "Fast Decoupled Load Flow," IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, vol. PAS-93, no. 3, pp. 859-869, May 1974. The original FDPF formulation. Surge's solve_fdpf implements both the XB and BX variants described in this paper.

DC Power Flow And Sensitivities

  • [Stott2009] B. Stott, J. Jardim, and O. Alsac, "DC Power Flow Revisited," IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, vol. 24, no. 3, pp. 1290-1300, Aug. 2009. Modern treatment of the DC power flow approximation, its assumptions (flat voltage, small angles, lossless branches), and practical accuracy. Surge's solve_dc implements this formulation.

  • [Wood2014] A. J. Wood, B. F. Wollenberg, and G. B. Sheble, Power Generation, Operation, and Control, 3rd ed., Wiley, 2014. Standard textbook reference for PTDF, LODF, shift factors, and their use in market operations and contingency screening.

Optimal Power Flow

  • [Carpentier1962] J. Carpentier, "Contribution a l'etude du dispatching economique," Bulletin de la Societe Francaise des Electriciens, vol. 3, no. 8, pp. 431-447, 1962. Original formulation of the OPF problem.

  • [Capitanescu2011] F. Capitanescu, J. L. Martinez Ramos, P. Panciatici, D. Kirschen, A. Marano Marcolini, L. Platbrood, and L. Wehenkel, "State-of-the-art, challenges, and future trends in security constrained optimal power flow," Electric Power Systems Research, vol. 81, no. 8, pp. 1731-1741, 2011. Survey of SCOPF formulations including Benders decomposition and constraint generation approaches.

  • [Wachter2006] A. Wachter and L. T. Biegler, "On the implementation of an interior-point filter line-search algorithm for large-scale nonlinear programming," Mathematical Programming, vol. 106, no. 1, pp. 25-57, 2006. The Ipopt algorithm used as the default NLP backend for AC-OPF.

Contingency Analysis

  • [Alsac1974] O. Alsac and B. Stott, "Optimal Load Flow with Steady-State Security," IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, vol. PAS-93, no. 3, pp. 745-751, 1974. Early formulation of security-constrained dispatch.

  • [Kessel1986] P. Kessel and H. Glavitsch, "Estimating the Voltage Stability of a Power System," IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, vol. PWRD-1, no. 3, pp. 346-354, July 1986. The L-index voltage stability indicator implemented in Surge's voltage-stress assessment.

Transfer Capability

  • [NERC_MOD029] NERC Standard MOD-029, "Rated System Path Methodology." Defines the ATC calculation methodology using PTDF and LODF factors. Surge's compute_nerc_atc implements this methodology.

  • [NERC_MOD030] NERC Standard MOD-030, "Flowgate Methodology." Defines the AFC calculation methodology using flowgate-specific distribution factors.

HVDC Modeling

  • [Arrillaga1998] J. Arrillaga, High Voltage Direct Current Transmission, 2nd ed., IEE Power and Energy Series, 1998. Standard reference for LCC-HVDC converter equations and steady-state modeling.

  • [Beerten2012] J. Beerten, S. Cole, and R. Belmans, "Generalized Steady-State VSC MTDC Model for Sequential AC/DC Power Flow Algorithms," IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, vol. 27, no. 2, pp. 821-829, May 2012. VSC-MTDC modeling approach. Surge's block-coupled and hybrid HVDC solvers build on this formulation.

Sparse Linear Algebra

  • [Davis2010] T. A. Davis and E. Palamadai Natarajan, "Algorithm 907: KLU, A Direct Sparse Solver for Circuit Simulation Problems," ACM Transactions on Mathematical Software, vol. 37, no. 3, Article 36, 2010. The KLU sparse LU factorization used by Surge for Jacobian and admittance matrix solves.

Market Dispatch And Commitment

  • [Holzer2024] J. T. Holzer, C. J. Coffrin, C. DeMarco, R. Duthu, S. T. Elbert, B. C. Eldridge, T. Elgindy, M. Garcia, S. L. Greene, N. Guo, E. Hale, B. Lesieutre, T. W. Mak, C. McMillan, H. Mittelmann, H. Oh, R. P. O'Neill, T. J. Overbye, B. Palmintier, R. Parker, F. Safdarian, A. Tbaileh, P. Van Hentenryck, A. Veeramany, S. Wangen, and J. L. Wert, "Grid Optimization Competition Challenge 3 Problem Formulation," Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Report PNNL-35792, April 2024. https://doi.org/10.2172/2337844 The canonical problem-formulation document for the ARPA-E Grid Optimization Competition Challenge 3: variables, constraints, and objective for a multi-period SCUC with reactive reserves, branch switching, soft energy windows, startup/shutdown trajectory power, linearized N-1 security, and an AC reconcile stage. Surge's surge-dispatch and surge-market crates implement this formulation; surge_market::go_c3 adapts GO C3 scenario JSON into the canonical dispatch request model.

  • [Holzer2024b] J. T. Holzer, S. Elbert, H. Mittelmann, R. O'Neill, and H. Oh, "GO Competition Challenge 3: Problem, Solvers, and Solution Analysis," arXiv:2411.12033 [math.NA], November 2024. https://arxiv.org/abs/2411.12033 Post-competition analysis paper: motivation, solver approaches from competition entrants, and evaluation results. Companion to the formulation report [Holzer2024].

Test Case Libraries

  • [Zimmerman2011] R. D. Zimmerman, C. E. Murillo-Sanchez, and R. J. Thomas, "MATPOWER: Steady-State Operations, Planning, and Analysis Tools for Power Systems Research and Education," IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, vol. 26, no. 1, pp. 12-19, Feb. 2011. Source for MATPOWER test cases used in Surge's example bundles and validation.

  • [Babaeinejadsarookolaee2019] S. Babaeinejadsarookolaee et al., "The Power Grid Library for Benchmarking AC Optimal Power Flow Algorithms," arXiv:1908.02788, 2019. Source for PGLib-OPF benchmark cases used in Surge's large-case examples.

Textbooks

  • [Glover2017] J. D. Glover, T. J. Overbye, and M. S. Sarma, Power Systems Analysis and Design, 6th ed., Cengage Learning, 2017.

  • [Grainger1994] J. J. Grainger and W. D. Stevenson, Power Systems Analysis, McGraw-Hill, 1994.

  • [Kundur1994] P. Kundur, Power System Stability and Control, McGraw-Hill, 1994.